27 апреля 1903 года родился немецко-британский фармаколог Ганс КОСТЕРЛИЦ (Hans Walter Kosterlitz) (1903-1996)

Vitthalrao B. Khyade

“Dr. APIS” SCIENCE SPECTRUM Objective: To Establish the Repository of Contributions of Eminent Scholars and Information on Science and Culture For The Society. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Jonas Salk: Personality of the Day ( 28 October) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Jonas Salk ------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Birth: 28 October, 1914) (Death: 23 June, 1995) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Jonas Edward Salk (October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995) was an American medical researcher and virologist. He discovered and developed the first successful inactivated polio vaccine. He was born in New York City to Jewish parents. Although they had little formal education, his parents were determined to see their children succeed. While attending New York University School of Medicine, Salk stood out from his peers, not just because of his academic prowess, but because he went into medical research instead of becoming a practicing physician. Until 1957, when the Salk vaccine was introduced, polio was considered the most frightening public health problem of the post-war United States. Annual epidemics were increasingly devastating. The 1952 epidemic was the worst outbreak in the nation's history. Of nearly 58,000 cases reported that year, 3,145 people died and 21,269 were left with mild to disabling paralysis,[1] with most of its victims being children. The "public reaction was to a plague," said historian Bill O'Neal.[2] "Citizens of urban areas were to be terrified every summer when this frightful visitor returned." According to a 2009 PBS documentary, "Apart from the atomic bomb, America's greatest fear was polio."[3] As a result, scientists were in a frantic race to find a way to prevent or cure the disease. U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt was the world's most recognized victim of the disease and founded the organization, the March of Dimes Foundation, that would fund the development of a vaccine. In 1947, Salk accepted an appointment to the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. In 1948, he undertook a project funded by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis to determine the number of different types of polio virus. Salk saw an opportunity to extend this project towards developing a vaccine against polio, and, together with the skilled research team he assembled, devoted himself to this work for the next seven years. The field trial set up to test the Salk vaccine was, according to O'Neill, "the most elaborate program of its kind in history, involving 20,000 physicians and public health officers, 64,000 school personnel, and 220,000 volunteers." Over 1,800,000 school children took part in the trial.[4] When news of the vaccine's success was made public on April 12, 1955, Salk was hailed as a "miracle worker" and the day almost became a national holiday. His sole focus had been to develop a safe and effective vaccine as rapidly as possible, with no interest in personal profit. When asked who owned the patent to it, Salk said "There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?"[5] The vaccine is calculated to be worth $7 billion had it been patented.[6] In 1960, he founded the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, which is today a center for medical and scientific research. He continued to conduct research and publish books, including Man Unfolding (1972), The Survival of the Wisest (1973), World Population and Human Values: A New Reality (1981), and Anatomy of Reality: Merging of Intuition and Reason (1983). Salk's last years were spent searching for a vaccine against HIV. His personal papers are stored at the University of California, San Diego Library.[7] Jonas Salk was born in New York City on October 28, 1914. His parents, Daniel and Dora (Press) Salk, were from Jewish immigrant families, and had not received extensive formal education. According to historian David Oshinsky, Salk grew up in the "Jewish immigrant culture" of New York. He had two younger brothers, Herman and Lee, a child psychologist.[8][9] The family moved from East Harlem to the Bronx, with some time spent in Queens. Education High school When he was 13, Salk entered Townsend Harris High School, a public school for intellectually gifted students. Named after the founder of City College of New York (CCNY), it was, said Oshinsky, "a launching pad for the talented sons of immigrant parents who lacked the money—and pedigree—to attend a top private school." In high school "he was known as a perfectionist . . . who read everything he could lay his hands on," according to one of his fellow students.[10] Students had to cram a four-year curriculum into just three years. As a result, most dropped out or flunked out, despite the school's motto "study, study, study." Of the students who graduated, however, most would have the grades to enroll in CCNY, noted for being a highly competitive college.[11]:96 College Salk enrolled in City College of New York from which he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1934. Oshinsky writes that "for working-class immigrant families, City College represented the apex of public higher education. Getting in was tough, but tuition was free. Competition was intense, but the rules were fairly applied. No one got an advantage based on an accident of birth."[11] At his mother's urging, he put aside aspirations of becoming a lawyer, and instead concentrated on classes necessary for admission to medical school. However, according to Oshinsky, the facilities at City College were "barely second rate." There were no research laboratories. The library was inadequate. The faculty contained few noted scholars. "What made the place special," he writes, "was the student body that had fought so hard to get there ... driven by their parents... From these ranks, of the 1930s and 1940s, emerged a wealth of intellectual talent, including more Nobel Prize winners—eight—and PhD recipients than any other public college except the University of California at Berkeley." Salk entered City College at the age of 15, a "common age for a freshman who had skipped multiple grades along the way."[11]:98 As a child, Salk did not show any interest in medicine or science in general. He said in an interview with the Academy of Achievement[12] "As a child I was not interested in science. I was merely interested in things human, the human side of nature, if you like, and I continue to be interested in that." Medical school According to Oshinsky, NYU based its modest reputation on famous alumni, such as Walter Reed, who helped conquer yellow fever. Tuition was "comparatively low, better still, it did not discriminate against Jews, . . . while most of the surrounding medical schools—Cornell, Columbia, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale—had rigid quotas in place." Yale, for example, accepted 76 applicants, in 1935, out of a pool of 501. Although 200 of the applicants were Jewish, only five got in.[11]:98 During Salk's years at the New York University School of Medicine, he stood out from his peers, according to Bookchin, "not just because of his continued academic prowess—he was Alpha Omega Alpha, the Phi Beta Kappa Society of medical education—but because he had decided he did not want to practice medicine." Instead, he became absorbed in research, even taking a year off to study biochemistry. He later focused more of his studies on bacteriology which had replaced medicine as his primary interest. He said his desire was to help humankind in general rather than single patients.[10] And as Oshinsky writes, "it was the laboratory work, in particular, that gave new direction to his life."[11] According to Salk: "My intention was to go to medical school, and then become a medical scientist. I did not intend to practice medicine, although in medical school, and in my internship, I did all the things that were necessary to qualify me in that regard. I had opportunities along the way to drop the idea of medicine and go into science. At one point at the end of my first year of medical school, I received an opportunity to spend a year in research and teaching in biochemistry, which I did. And at the end of that year, I was told that I could, if I wished, switch and get a Ph.D. in biochemistry but my preference was to stay with medicine. And, I believe that this is all linked to my original ambition, or desire, which was to be of some help to humankind, so to speak, in a larger sense than just on a one-to-one basis."[13] Postgraduate research In 1941, during his postgraduate work in virology, Salk chose a two-month elective to work in the laboratory of Dr. Thomas Francis at the University of Michigan. Francis had recently joined the faculty of the medical school after working for the Rockefeller Foundation, where he had discovered the Type B influenza virus. According to Bookchin, "the two-month stint in Francis's lab was Salk's first introduction to the world of virology—and he was hooked."[10]:25 From that time originates the first controversy (the second one relates in revealing SV40 in the rhesus monkey kidney cells used for multiplying poliomyelitis virus for vaccines in 1960[14][15][16][17]) in Salk's career: Francis and other researchers, one of whom was Salk, deliberately infected patients at several Michigan mental hospitals with the influenza virus by spraying the virus into their nasal cavities.[18] After graduating from medical school, Salk began his residency at New York's Mount Sinai Hospital, where he again worked in Francis's laboratory. Few hospitals in Manhattan had the status of Mount Sinai, particularly among the city's Jews. Oshinsky interviewed a friend of Salk's, who said, "to intern there was like playing ball for the New York Yankees ... only the top men from the nation's medical schools dared apply. Out of 250 who sought the opportunity, only a dozen were chosen."[11] According to Oshinsky, "Salk quickly made his mark." Although focused mainly on research, "he showed tremendous skills as a clinician and a surgeon." But it was "his leadership as president of the house staff of interns and residents at Mount Sinai that best defined him to his peers." The key issue for many of them in 1939, for example, was not the fate of the hospital, but rather the future of Europe after Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland. In one instance, "several interns responded by wearing badges to signify support for the Allies", but the hospital's director told them to remove them lest they upset some of the patients. The interns then took the matter to Salk, where he said that "everyone should wear the badge as an act of solidarity." One intern recalled, "Jonas was a very staunch guy. He never took a backward step on that issue or any other issue of principle between us and the hospital." The hospital administrators backed off and there was no further interference from the director.[11] Research career At the end of his residency, Salk began applying for permanent research positions, but he discovered that many of the jobs he desired were closed to him due to Jewish quotas, which, according to Bookchin, "prevailed in so much of the medical research establishment." Nor could he apply at Mount Sinai, as its policy prevented it from hiring its own interns. As a last resort, he contacted Dr. Francis for help, but Francis had left New York University a year earlier after accepting an offer to direct the University of Michigan's School of Public Health. However, "Francis did not let him down," writes Bookchin. "He secured extra grant money and offered Salk a job" working on an army-commissioned project in Michigan to develop an influenza vaccine. He and Francis eventually perfected a vaccine that was soon widely used at army bases, where "Salk had been responsible for discovering and isolating one of the flu strains that was included in the final vaccine."[10]:26 By 1947, Salk decided to find an institution where he could direct his own laboratory. After three institutions turned him down, he received from William McEllroy, the dean of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, an offer which included a promise that he would run his own lab. He accepted, and in the fall of that year, left Michigan and relocated to Pennsylvania. But the promise was not quite what he expected. After Salk arrived at Pittsburgh, "he discovered that he had been relegated to cramped, unequipped quarters in the basement of the old Municipal Hospital", writes Bookchin. As time went on, however, Salk began securing grants from the Mellon family and was able to build a working virology laboratory, where he continued his research on flu vaccines.[10] Salk's work on influenza viruses has been associated with ethical controversy. The Associated Press reported that Salk authored a research paper describing a federally funded study that began in 1942. Salk injected patients in a state insane asylum in Ypsilanti, Michigan, with an experimental influenza vaccine, then exposed them to influenza virus months later to check the vaccine's efficacy. It is questionable at best whether any of these patients could have understood what was being done to them, or why.[19] He was later approached by the director of research at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis and asked whether he would like to participate on the foundation's polio project which had earlier been established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the time thought to be a victim of polio himself. Salk quickly accepted the offer, saying he "would be happy to work on this important project."[10] In 1956, Wisdom magazine ran a cover story about Salk, summarizing some of the reasoning behind his desire to do research: There are two types of medical specialists. There are those who fight disease day and night, who assist mankind in times of despair and agony and who preside over the awesome events of life and death. Others work in the quiet detachment of the laboratory; their names are often unknown to the general public, but their research may have momentous consequences.[20] Joining the fight against polio The worst disease of the postwar era Polio was a medical oddity that baffled researchers for years. It was first recorded in 1835 and grew steadily more prevalent. It took a long time to learn that the virus was transmitted by fecal matter and secretions of the nose and throat. It entered the victim orally, established itself in the intestines, and then traveled to the brain or spinal cord.[2] At the start of the 20th century, during the 1914 and 1919 polio epidemics in the U.S., physicians and nurses made house-to-house searches to identify all infected persons. Children suspected of being infected were taken to hospitals and a child's family was quarantined until that child was no longer potentially infectious, even if it meant the family could not go to their child's funeral if the child died in the hospital.[21] There are many famous polio victims, most of whom were able to overcome their disabilities, while others were less fortunate: Itzhak Perlman, one of the world's finest violinists, was permanently disabled at age four, and still plays sitting down; actor Donald Sutherland; writer Arthur C. Clarke; writer Robert Anton Wilson; actress Mia Farrow;[22] singer-musician Neil Young; Olympic dressage rider Lis Hartel; actor Alan Alda; musician David Sanborn; singer Dinah Shore; singer Joni Mitchell; former Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas; director Francis Ford Coppola; nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer; actor Lionel Barrymore;[23] and Congressman James H. Scheuer.[24] According to American historian William O'Neill, "Paralytic poliomyelitis (its formal name) was, if not the most serious, easily the most frightening public health problem of the postwar era." He noted that the epidemics kept getting worse and its victims were usually children. By 1952, it was killing more of them than was any other communicable disease. In the twenty states that reported the disease back in 1916, there were 27,363 cases. New York alone had 9,023 cases, of which 2,448 (28%) resulted in death, and a larger number in paralysis.[2]:136 However, polio did not gain national attention until 1921, when Franklin D. Roosevelt, former vice presidential candidate and soon to be governor of New York, came down with a paralytic illness, diagnosed at the time as polio.[25] At the age of 39, Roosevelt was left with severe paralysis and spent most of his presidency in a wheelchair. Subsequently, as more states began recording instances of the disease, the numbers of victims grew larger. Nearly 58,000 cases of polio were reported in 1952, with 3,145 people dying and 21,269 left with mild to disabling paralysis.[1] In some parts of the country, concern assumed almost the dimensions of panic. According to Olson, "parents kept children home from school, avoided parks and swimming pools, and played only in small groups with the closest of friends."[25] Cases usually increased during the summer when children were home from school. "The public reaction was to a plague," noted O'Neill. "Citizens of urban areas were to be terrified every summer when this frightful visitor returned."[2] As a result, Olson points out, "scientists were in a frantic race to find a cure."[25] The famous U.S. artist Andrew Wyeth painted his neighbor, Christina Olson, who was crippled with polio. The painting is considered his most famous work.[26] Salk joins the fight Salk became ambitious for his own lab and was finally granted one at the University of Pittsburgh. However, he was disappointed. The lab they had given him was much smaller than he had hoped and the university forced him to conform to many rules which stunted his research as a beginning virologist.[27] In 1948, Harry Weaver, the director of research at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (NFIP), which later became known as the March of Dimes, contacted Salk. He asked Salk to join the fight against polio and research/confirm how many polio types there were. At the time, scientists had discovered three; they wanted to know if there were any more types. Although this type of polio research would be repetitious, boring, and time-consuming, the National Foundation agreed to pay for additional space, equipment and researchers. Once the research was finished, Salk would be able to keep the facilities and continue his previous work. Because Salk desperately needed space, he joined the fight. For the first year, he gathered supplies and researchers. Dr. Julius Youngner, Byron Bennett, Dr. L. James Lewis and secretary Lorraine Friedman joined Salk's team as well.[28] Youngner remembers this period: Jonas was swimming against the current. He was a young whippersnapper who came out of nowhere, and suddenly is taking on this responsibility, and not only that, but getting the support of Basil O’Connor, because Jonas convinced Basil O’Connor that we were going to do it.[3] The fight begins Oshinsky writes that as "headlines screamed, 'Polio Scourge,' 'Polio Panic,' and 'Polio's Deadly Path,'" parents "faced a dilemma" and a feeling of personal helplessness in the midst of an "apparently runaway epidemic." Their "postwar culture was being turned upside down" as polio became the "crack in the fantasy" of a suburban home "bursting with children." Parents began to see that there would be an alternative, however: "Since worry did no good and quarantine seemed fruitless, parents might best protect their children by helping others to discover a vaccine against polio, and, perhaps, even a cure." The public soon realized that this kind of research demanded "big money" and an "army of devoted volunteers,"[11]:85–87 but Salk was determined to make it over this barrier. The fight against polio did not really get under way until 1938 when the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis was born, headed by Basil O'Connor, the former law partner of President Roosevelt, the US's most famous polio victim. That same year, the first March of Dimes fundraising program was set up, with radio networks offering free 30-second slots for promotion. Listeners were asked to send in a dime and the White House received 2,680,000 letters within days. As the fear of polio increased each year, funds to combat it increased from $1.8 million to $67 million by 1955. Research continued during those years, but, writes O'Neill, "everything scientists believed about polio at first was wrong, leading them down many blind alleys . . . furthermore, most researchers were experimenting with highly dangerous live vaccines. In one test, six children were killed and three left crippled."[2] "This was the situation when young Jonas Salk, a medical doctor in charge of a virology laboratory at the University of Pittsburgh, decided to use the safer killed virus," writes O'Neill. Despite a general lack of enthusiasm for this approach, O'Connor backed Salk handsomely. After successful tests on laboratory animals, it next had to be tested on human beings. On July 2, 1952, assisted by the staff at the D.T. Watson Home for Crippled Children, Jonas Salk injected 43 children with his killed virus vaccine. A few weeks after the Watson tests, Salk injected children at the Polk State School for the retarded and feeble-minded.[29] In November 1953, at a conference in New York's Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, he said, "I will be personally responsible for the vaccine." He announced that his wife and three sons had been among the first volunteers to be inoculated with his vaccine.[30] It was critical that Salk develop the trust of the US public for his experiments and the mass tests that would become necessary. An associate of his noted, "That boy really suffers when he sees a paralytic case. You look at him and you see him thinking, 'My God, this can be prevented'."[31] An article in Wisdom notes that at one point, "he even thought of giving up virus research": But as he was sitting in a park and watching children play, he realized how important his work was. He saw that there were thousands of children and adults who would never walk again and whose bodies would be paralyzed. He realized his awesome responsibility, and so he continued his task with renewed vigor.[20] As a result of Salk's preliminary results in 1954, "when polio was destroying more American children than any other communicable disease, his vaccine was ready for field testing."[2] Field trials The field trial set up to test the vaccine developed by Salk and his research team was, according to O'Neill, "the most elaborate program of its kind in history, involving 20,000 physicians and public health officers, 64,000 school personnel, and 220,000 volunteers,"[2] with over 1,800,000 school children participating in the trial.[4] A 1954 Gallup poll showed that more Americans knew about the polio field trials than could give the full name of the US President. According to medical author Paul Offit, "more Americans had participated in the funding, development, and testing of the polio vaccine than had participated in the nomination and election of the president."[32]:54 At least one hundred million people had contributed to the March of Dimes, and seven million had donated their time and labor as well.[2] They included fund-raisers, committee workers, and volunteers at clinics and record centers. Doris Fleischer, a disability historian, noted that O'Connor was willing to take whatever risks necessary to serve the purposes of the foundation. She writes, "When O'Connor realized that success seemed imminent, he allowed the foundation to go into debt to finance the final research required to develop the Salk vaccine. His 'passionate' devotion to this task became almost 'obsessive' when his daughter, a mother of five, told him that she had contracted the illness, saying, 'I've gotten some of your polio.'"[33] With the hopes of the world upon him, "Salk worked sixteen hours a day, seven days a week, for years . . .", wrote Denenberg.[34] It had been, Salk later described, "two and a half years of drudgery and hard work."[10]:44 The results of the tests were eventually deemed successful and, O'Neill wrote, "Salk had justified Basil O'Connor's faith."[2] The research by Salk was not without controversy. Esther Lederberg, a well-known microbiologist, felt that Salk needed detailed records to ensure that his vaccine was as effective as claimed.[35] Developing a vaccine Test results announced On April 12, 1955, Dr. Thomas Francis, Jr., of the University of Michigan, the monitor of the test results, "declared the vaccine to be safe and effective." The announcement was made at the University of Michigan, exactly 10 years to the day after the death of President Roosevelt. Five hundred people, including 150 press, radio, and television reporters, filled the room; 16 television and newsreel cameras stood on a long platform at the back; and 54,000 physicians, sitting in movie theaters across the country, watched the broadcast on closed-circuit television. Eli Lilly and Company paid $250,000 to broadcast the event. Americans turned on their radios to hear the details, department stores set up loudspeakers, and judges suspended trials so that everyone in the courtroom could hear. Europeans listened on the Voice of America. Paul Offit writes about the event: "The presentation was numbing, but the results were clear: the vaccine worked. Inside the auditorium Americans tearfully and joyfully embraced the results. By the time Thomas Francis stepped down from the podium, church bells were ringing across the country, factories were observing moments of silence, synagogues and churches were holding prayer meetings, and parents and teachers were weeping. One shopkeeper painted a sign on his window: Thank you, Dr. Salk. 'It was as if a war had ended', one observer recalled."[32]:56 "The report", wrote The New York Times, "was a medical classic." Dr. Francis reported that the vaccinations had been 80 to 90 percent effective on the basis of results in eleven states. Overall, the vaccine was administered to over 440,000 children in forty-four states, three Canadian provinces and in Helsinki, Finland,[4] and the final report required the evaluation of 144,000,000 separate items of information. After the announcement, when asked whether the effectiveness of the vaccine could be improved, Salk said, "Theoretically, the new 1955 vaccines and vaccination procedures may lead to 100 percent protection from paralysis of all those vaccinated."[36] The nation celebrates Salk’s new vaccine was by transformed by Alan John Beale’s team, based in Glaxo, England into something which could be manufactured on the enormous scale which the widespread threat of poliomyelitis required. Within minutes of Francis's declaration that the vaccine was safe and effective, the news of the event was carried coast to coast by wire services, radio and television newscasts. According to Debbie Bookchin, "across the nation there were spontaneous celebrations... business came to a halt as the news spread. The mayor of New York City interrupted a city council meeting to announce the news, adding, 'I think we are all quite proud that Dr. Salk is a graduate of City College.'"[10]:46 "By the next morning", writes Bookchin, "politicians around the country were falling over themselves trying to figure out ways they could congratulate Salk, with several suggesting special medals and honors be awarded.... In the Eisenhower White House, plans were already afoot to present Salk a special presidential medal designating him "a benefactor of mankind" in a Rose Garden ceremony. It was also declared "a victory for the whole nation." Jonas Salk became "world famous overnight and was showered with awards", writes O'Neill. The governor of Pennsylvania had a medal struck, and the state legislature gave him a chaired professorship. However, New York City could not get him to accept a ticker tape parade. Instead New York created eight "Jonas Salk Scholarships" for future medical students. He received a Presidential Citation, the nation's first Congressional Medal for Distinguished Civilian Service, and a large number of honorary degrees and related honors.[2]:138 According to O'Neill, "April 12th had almost become a national holiday: people observed moments of silence, rang bells, honked horns, blew factory whistles, fired salutes, kept their red lights red in brief periods of tribute, took the rest of the day off, closed their schools or convoked fervid assemblies therein, drank toasts, hugged children, attended church, smiled at strangers, and forgave enemies."[2]:138 By July, movie studios were already fighting for the motion-picture rights to his film biography. Twentieth Century-Fox began writing a screenplay and Warner Brothers filed a claim to the title The Triumph of Dr. Jonas Salk shortly after the formal announcement of the vaccine.[37] Global acceptance and hope Six months before Salk's announcement, optimism and hope were so widespread that the Polio Fund in the U.S. had already contracted to purchase enough of the Salk vaccine to immunize 9,000,000 children and pregnant women the following year.[38] And around the world, the official news prompted an immediate international rush to vaccinate. Medical historian Debbie Bookchin writes, "Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, West Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium all announced plans to either immediately begin polio immunization campaigns using Salk's vaccine or to gear up to quickly do so. "Overnight", she adds, "Salk had become an international hero and a household name. His vaccine was a modern medical miracle."[10]:47 Because Salk was the first to prove that a killed-virus could prevent polio, medical historian Paul Offit wrote in 2007 that "for this observation alone, Salk should have been awarded the Nobel Prize.[32] Virologist Isabel Morgan had earlier shown and published that a killed-virus could prevent polio, although she did not test her vaccines on humans. Morgan's work, nonetheless, was a key link in the chain of progress toward the killed-virus polio vaccine for humans later developed and tested by Salk. By the summer of 1957, over two years later, 100 million doses had been distributed throughout the United States and "reported complications following their administration have been remarkably rare", noted the scientists at the International Polio Conference in Geneva. Scientists from other nations reported similar experiences: Denmark, for example, "reported only a few sporadic cases among the 2,500,000 ... who received the vaccine." Australia reported virtually no polio during her past summer season.[39] Other countries where the vaccine was not yet in use suffered continued epidemics, however. In 1957, Hungary, for example, reported a severe epidemic requiring emergency international assistance. By the first half of the year, it had 713 reported cases and a death rate of 6.6%, and the peak infection months of summer were still ahead. Canada sent a shipment of vaccine to Hungary by a refrigerated plane, and Britain and Sweden sent iron lungs. A few years later, during a polio outbreak in Canada, "masked bandits" stole 75,000 Salk vaccine shots from a Montreal university research center.[40] Worldwide eradication successes and failures By the end of 1990, it was estimated that 500,000 annual cases worldwide of paralysis resulting from polio had been prevented due to immunization programs carried out by WHO, UNICEF, and many other organizations, and in 1991, transmission of polio was declared as "interrupted" in the Western hemisphere. In developing countries, estimates in 1988 ran as high as 350,000 cases each year.[41] As a result, in 2002, more than 500 million children were immunized in 93 countries,[21]:112 and by December 2002, there were only 1,924 cases worldwide, mostly in India,[42] with six other countries where polio was still endemic: Afghanistan, Egypt, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Somalia.[43] By early 2014, however, the World Health Organization (WHO) listed only three remaining countries where polio was still endemic, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Nigeria, and declared Pakistan's city of Peshawar as the world's "largest reservoir," of polio.[44] Some groups have attributed Pakistan's high numbers, in part, to the fact that because the CIA conducted a fake polio campaign to help track Osama bin Laden in May 2011, religious extremists can create fear that the vaccine is actually a western conspiracy to sterilise the population.[45][46] China In 1993, China initiated a national immunization program, with over 80 million children getting vaccinated in just 2 days; by the following year, the country reported only 5 cases of polio.[47] India In 1981, India reported over 38,000 cases of polio. By 1999, intensive vaccination campaigns had succeeded in eradicating the Type 2 strain of virus from India. Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates sponsored a campaign to eradicate polio, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation committed nearly $1 billion to health and development projects throughout India.[48] The last case of polio in India, in two-year-old Rukhsaar Khatoon, was confirmed on 13 January 2011. India was removed from the list of polio-endemic countries in 2012, and marked two years without a case of polio on 13 January 2013.[49] As no new cases were found by January, 2014, the nation was officially declared polio-free.[42] Africa In 2003, after an outbreak in Nigeria, international organizations spent $10 million to vaccinate 15 million children in Nigeria and neighboring countries.[21]:112 Latin America During the 1970s, Latin America had an estimated 15,000 paralysis cases, with about 1,750 deaths each year from polio. By 1991, the last case of polio was reported in Latin America and the Caribbean, and polio has now been declared as fully eliminated from the region.[50] Remaining eradication efforts In 1988, numerous international medical organizations launched a campaign to eradicate polio globally, as had been successfully done for smallpox. By 2003, polio had been eradicated in all but a few countries, among them Afghanistan, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan[51] However, mullahs in northern Nigeria began to oppose the vaccination program, claiming that it was a plot to spread AIDS and sterility, and prevented any vaccination. Polio cases in Nigeria tripled over the next three years.[51] Environmental scientist Lester Brown speculates that Nigerian Muslims may have spread the disease to Muslims of other polio-free countries during their annual pilgrimage to Mecca, in Saudi Arabia. With these same fears, Saudi Arabian officials imposed polio vaccination requirement on certain visitors. In Pakistan in 2007, there was violent opposition to vaccinations in the Northwest Frontier Province where a doctor and a health worker in the Polio Eradication Program were killed. Since then, the Taliban has blocked all vaccinations in the Swat Valley of Pakistan. As a result, Pakistan was the only country in 2010 to record an increase in cases of polio, according to the World Health Organization, along with having the highest incidence of polio in the world.[52] Meanwhile, the Gates Foundation, which has spent $1.5 billion, plans to spend another $1.8 billion through 2018 to help eradicate the virus.[53] New medical research projects urged Just two weeks after the vaccine was announced, Senator Hubert H. Humphrey (Democrat, Minnesota) urged President Dwight D. Eisenhower "to show the nation's gratitude to Dr. Jonas E. Salk for his new polio vaccine by 'loosening the purse-strings' on Federal medical research."[54] Salk knew it would take time to verify his theories and improve the vaccine. "He still wants to find out a number of things about polio", wrote The New York Times that summer. Questions remained: "How long will the immunity last? Are there any children who cannot be immunized? What improvements can be made?" Beyond that, "he has far bigger goals—'more in the nature of dreams right now'—involving other diseases."[31] Over the next few years, while trying to perfect the polio vaccine, Salk had begun working unannounced, on a cure for cancer. A 1958 article in The New York Times confirmed "that he had been conducting experiments on cancer patients." The news was leaked after a Pittsburgh newspaper, the Sun-Telegraph, reported that he had been giving injections to children suffering from cancer. Salk stated afterwards, "It is true that we have been conducting experiments in many persons with a variety of cancer and cancer-like conditions ... but we have no treatment for cancer. Our studies are of a strictly exploratory nature..."[55] In 1965, he also said "a vaccine for the common cold is a matter of time and of solving some technical problems."[56] Final conquest of polio and the Sabin vaccine controversy Years before the Salk vaccine was officially announced as safe, Dr. Albert Sabin had joined in the search for a vaccine, using a live-virus, as opposed to Salk's killed-virus. Sabin, however, had been "openly hostile to Salk." Debbie Bookchin writes that he had been "perhaps accurately guessing that Salk was about to challenge him for ascendancy in the polio world." After one presentation that Salk made to a medical conference, "Sabin mounted a full-scale offensive, engaging in a piecemeal demolition of his presentation."[10] However, the National Foundation "swiftly put its full weight behind Salk. Here, finally, was a polio researcher, they said, who had accomplished something."[10] By 1962, polio had become almost extinct, with only 910 cases reported that year—down from 37,476 in 1954. "It's a matter of principle", Salk said. "It is not a Salk versus Sabin controversy, a competition between two people... I had worked with influenza viruses, helping to establish the efficacy of a killed-virus vaccine... I demonstrated that it could be 100 percent effective if the quantity of virus in the vaccine was sufficient."[57] That same year, the state of New York's Health Department recommended "that the Salk vaccine be given preference over the Sabin oral vaccine..."[58] On October 20, 1998, after eighteen years of using the Sabin vaccine, however, the federal government recommended that children use the Salk vaccine exclusively. Sabin's polio vaccine is no longer available in the United States.[32]:127 While OPV is not recommended by the CDC, its website explained that Sabin's OPV is more suited to areas where polio is endemic, because of "its advantages over IPV in providing intestinal immunity and providing secondary spread of the vaccine to unprotected contacts."[59] On January 4, 2013, the World Health Organization called for the Sabin OPV, which contains the Type 2 strain of poliovirus, to be phased out as soon as possible; although the Type 2 strain has been eradicated in the wild, vaccine-derived strains still circulate in polio-endemic nations. A different OPV would continue to be administered, protecting against Types 1 and 3, which are both still endemic in the wild in Nigeria, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The WHO also called for the rapid introduction of the Salk IPV, which will be used along with OPV during a transition period. Once Types 1 and 3 cease to be endemic, the OPV will be phased out, and the Salk vaccine will be used exclusively.[60] Looking back—Public confusion over which vaccine to use In September 1962, public health officials in the U.S. and Canada faced a "major dilemma": whether to continue using the recently begun Sabin vaccine inoculations until further studies were conducted, due to reports of polio cases among persons who had received it. The U.S. Surgeon General, Luther Terry, recommended a temporary halt due to sixteen cases of confirmed polio in adults. And "the Canadian Federal Health Department recommended against mass use of the [Sabin] oral vaccine pending further study of its effects." One of the unfortunate results caused by the controversy was that "many authorities have deplored the confusion that has been created in the public mind."[61] Due to the American Medical Association's (AMA) "obstructive tactics, however, which caused numerous delays", writes O'Neill, the AMA had called for mass vaccinations in early 1962 employing Sabin's vaccine rather than Salk's. However, writes O'Neill, "as live-virus was more dangerous, it caused an unknown number of polio cases... [but] the medical establishment seemed not to mind, having gotten its own way at last." But, concludes O'Neill, "polio was conquered all the same, even if not so quickly and safely as it might have been."[2]:139 In 1980, Salk pointed out the renewed interest in his killed virus vaccine, particularly in developing countries. "The live virus vaccine is highly effective in developed countries ...", he said, "but in the developing countries, where polio is on the increase, the drawback is that the live virus fails to establish the infection that leads to immunity because of intestinal inhibitors in the population."[57] Recent evidence of this was found in Iran, where a number of children receiving the oral vaccine became infected with polio, leading Iranian researchers to recommend using the killed virus in the future.[62] Basil O'Connor enters the controversy. Two months after the Salk vaccine was announced to the world, in 1955, Basil O'Connor found it necessary to respond to critics of the vaccine, especially Dr. Sabin. As the President of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, he said, during a news conference before a Congressional group in Washington, that "criticism of the Salk vaccine program by Dr. Albert Sabin of the University of Cincinnati was 'old stuff'." According to The New York Times, "Dr. Sabin recommended at a hearing before a House Investigating subcommittee that Salk inoculations be suspended" until a safer preparation could be perfected.[63] O'Connor responded in a prepared statement: "He's been using it [criticism] for years. He used it in an attempt to stop the field trials of the Salk vaccine... The Salk vaccine is safe and effective and will protect children from paralytic polio to the extent of 60 to 90 percent... In the United States, Canada and Denmark, 7,675,000 children have actually received the Salk vaccine with no untoward results. There could be no better proof of its safety than this. No vaccine in the history of the world has ever had such a test for safety. Anyone who would seek to prevent its use for other than unanswerable scientific reasons would be acting neither as a scientist nor as a humanitarian.... "Those who would prevent its use must be prepared to be haunted for life by the crippled bodies of little children who could have been saved from paralysis had they been permitted to receive the Salk vaccine."[63] However, a year and a half after the Salk vaccine was introduced, a Sabin vaccine had still not yet been tested on humans. Sabin himself said, in October 1956, that "the Salk vaccine is still the only protection against polio available to the public." He was hoping to be able to start tests on humans by the end of the year or by 1957.[64] The Cutter incident In 1955, Cutter Laboratories was one of several companies licensed by the United States government to produce Salk's polio vaccine. In what came to be known as the Cutter Incident, a production error caused some lots of the Cutter vaccine to be tainted with live polio virus. It was one of the worst pharmaceutical disasters in U.S. history and caused several thousand children to be exposed to live polio virus, causing 56 cases of paralytic polio and 5 deaths.[65] 10th anniversary ceremonies On April 12, 1965, leaders of the Senate and House presented Salk with a joint resolution expressing the nation's gratitude to him, his colleagues in the project and the March of Dimes, which helped to finance the work. President Lyndon B. Johnson called him to the White House to congratulate him personally. Dr. Luther Terry, Surgeon General of the United States, said in a statement marking the anniversary that only 121 cases of polio were reported the previous year, as opposed to more than 28,000 ten years before. "This represents an historic triumph of preventive medicine—unparalleled in history", Dr. Terry said.[56] 30th anniversary—"Jonas Salk Day" On May 6, 1985, President Ronald Reagan proclaimed that day to be "Jonas Salk Day." His proclamation read, in part: One of the greatest challenges to mankind always has been eradicating the presence of debilitating disease. Until just thirty years ago poliomyelitis occurred in the United States and throughout the world in epidemic proportions, striking tens of thousands and killing thousands in our own country each year. Dr. Jonas E. Salk changed all that. This year we observe the 30th anniversary of the licensing and manufacturing of the vaccine discovered by this great American. Even before another successful vaccine was discovered, Dr. Salk's discovery had reduced polio and its effects by 97 percent. Today, polio is not a familiar disease to younger Americans, and many have difficulty appreciating the magnitude of the disorder that the Salk vaccine virtually wiped from the face of the Earth.[66] Becoming a public figure Celebrity versus privacy Salk preferred not to have his career as a scientist affected by too much personal attention, as he had always tried to remain independent and private in his research and life. But this proved to be impossible. "Young man, a great tragedy has befallen you—you've lost your anonymity", the late television personality Ed Murrow said to Salk shortly after the onslaught of media attention.[57] When Murrow asked him, "Who owns this patent?", Salk replied, "No one. Could you patent the sun?"[67] However, lawyers from the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis did look into the possibility of a patent, but ultimately determined that the vaccine was not a patentable invention because of prior art.[68] Author Jon Cohen noted that "Jonas Salk made scientists and journalists alike go goofy. As one of the only living scientists whose face was known the world over, Salk, in the public's eye, had a superstar aura. Airplane pilots would announce that he was on board, and passengers would burst into applause. Hotels routinely would upgrade him into their penthouse suites. A meal at a restaurant inevitably meant an interruption from an admirer... and scientists approached him with drop-jawed wonder, as though some of the stardust might rub off."[69] For the most part, however, Salk was "appalled at the demands on the public figure he has become and resentful of what he considers to be the invasion of his privacy", wrote The New York Times, a few months after his vaccine announcement.[31] The Times article noted that "at 40, the once obscure scientist ... was lifted from his laboratory almost to the level of a folk hero." He received a Presidential citation, a score of awards, four honorary degrees, half a dozen foreign decorations, and letters from thousands of fellow citizens. His alma mater, City College of New York, gave him an honorary degree as Doctor of Laws. But "despite such very nice tributes", The New York Times wrote, "Salk is profoundly disturbed by the torrent of fame that has descended upon him.... He talks continually about getting out of the limelight and back to his laboratory... because of his genuine distaste for publicity, which he believes is inappropriate for a scientist."[31] During a 1980 interview, 25 years later, he said, "It's as if I've been a public property ever since, having to respond to external as well as internal impulses.... It's brought me enormous gratification, opened many opportunities, but at the same time placed many burdens on me. It altered my career, my relationships with colleagues; I am a public figure, no longer one of them."[57] Maintaining his individuality "If Salk the scientist sounds austere", wrote The New York Times, "Salk the man is a person of great warmth and tremendous enthusiasm. People who meet him generally like him." A Washington newspaper correspondent commented, "He could sell me the Brooklyn Bridge, and I never bought anything before." Award-winning geneticist Walter Nelson-Rees called him "a renaissance scientist: brilliant, sophisticated, driven... a fantastic creature."[70]:127 He enjoys talking to people he likes, and "he likes a lot of people", wrote the Times. "He talks quickly, articulately, and often in complete paragraphs." And, notes the Times, "He has very little perceptible interest in the things that interest most people—such as making money." That belongs "in the category of mink coats and Cadillacs—unnecessary", he said.[31] Establishing the Salk Institute In the years after Salk's discovery, many supporters, in particular the National Foundation, "helped him build his dream of a research complex for the investigation of biological phenomena 'from cell to society'." Called the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, it opened in 1963 in the San Diego neighborhood of La Jolla. Salk believed that the institution would help new and upcoming scientists along in their careers, as he said himself, "I thought how nice it would be if a place like this existed and I was invited to work there." This was something that Salk was deprived of early in his life, but due to his achievements, was able to provide for future scientists. In 1966, Salk described his "ambitious plan for the creation of a kind of Socratic academy where the supposedly alienated two cultures of science and humanism will have a favorable atmosphere for cross-fertilization."[71] Author and journalist Howard Taubman explained: "Although he is distinctly future-oriented, Dr. Salk has not lost sight of the institute's immediate aim, which is the development and use of the new biology, called molecular and cellular biology, described as part physics, part chemistry and part biology. The broad-gauged purpose of this science is to understand man's life processes. "There is talk here of the possibility, once the secret of how the cell is triggered to manufacture antibodies is discovered, that a single vaccine may be developed to protect a child against many common infectious diseases. There is speculation about the power to isolate and perhaps eliminate genetic errors that lead to birth defects. "Dr. Salk, a creative man himself, hopes that the institute will do its share in probing the wisdom of nature and thus help enlarge the wisdom of man. For the ultimate purpose of science, humanism and the arts, in his judgment, is the freeing of each individual to cultivate his full creativity, in whichever direction it leads. . . As if to prepare for Socratic encounters such as these, the institute's architect, Louis Kahn, has installed blackboards in place of concrete facings on the walls along the walks."[71] The New York Times, in a 1980 article celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, described the current workings at the facility: "At the institute, a magnificent complex of laboratories and study units set on a bluff overlooking the Pacific, Dr. Salk holds the titles of founding director and resident fellow. His own laboratory group is concerned with the immunologic aspects of cancer and the mechanisms of autoimmune disease, such as multiple sclerosis, in which the immune system attacks the body's own tissues.[57] In an interview about his future hopes at the institute, he said, "In the end, what may have more significance is my creation of the institute and what will come out of it, because of its example as a place for excellence, a creative environment for creative minds." Francis Crick, co-discoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule, was a leading professor at the institute until his death in 2004. AIDS vaccine work Beginning in the mid-1980s, Salk also engaged in research to develop a vaccine for another, more recent plague, AIDS. To further this research, he co-founded The Immune Response Corporation with Kevin Kimberlin, to search for a vaccine, and patented Remune, an immune-based therapy.[72] The AIDS vaccine project was discontinued in 2007, twelve years after Jonas Salk's death in 1995. Although many advances have been made in treating AIDS, "the world still waited for the miracle vaccine the conqueror of polio had sought", wrote historian Alan Axelrod.[73]:294 Salk's "biophilosophy" In 1966, The New York Times referred to him as the "Father of Biophilosophy." According to Times journalist and author Howard Taubman, "he never forgets... there is a vast amount of darkness for man to penetrate. As a biologist, he believes that his science is on the frontier of tremendous new discoveries; and as a philosopher, he is convinced that humanists and artists have joined the scientists to achieve an understanding of man in all his physical, mental and spiritual complexity. Such interchanges might lead, he would hope, to a new and important school of thinkers he would designate as biophilosophers."[71] Salk describes his "biophilosophy" as the application of a "biological, evolutionary point of view to philosophical, cultural, social and psychological problems." He went into more detail in two of his books, Man's Unfolding, and The Survival of the Wisest. In an interview in 1980, he described his thoughts on the subject, including his feeling that a sharp rise and an expected leveling off in the human population would take place and eventually bring a change in human attitudes: "I think of biological knowledge as providing useful analogies for understanding human nature.... People think of biology in terms of such practical matters as drugs, but its contribution to knowledge about living systems and ourselves will in the future be equally important.... In the past epoch, man was concerned with death, high mortality; his attitudes were antideath, antidisease", he says. "In the future, his attitudes will be expressed in terms of prolife and prohealth. The past was dominated by death control; in the future, birth control will be more important. These changes we're observing are part of a natural order and to be expected from our capacity to adapt. It's much more important to cooperate and collaborate. We are the co-authors with nature of our destiny."[57] His definition of a "bio-philosopher" is "Someone who draws upon the scriptures of nature, recognizing that we are the product of the process of evolution, and understands that we have become the process itself, through the emergence and evolution of our consciousness, our awareness, our capacity to imagine and anticipate the future, and to choose from among alternatives."[74] Personal life The day after his graduation from medical school, Salk married Donna Lindsay, a master's candidate at the New York College of Social Work. David Oshinsky writes that her father, Elmer Lindsay, "a wealthy Manhattan dentist, viewed Salk as a social inferior, several cuts below Donna's former suitors." Eventually, her father agreed to the marriage on two conditions: first, Salk must wait until he could be listed as an official M.D. on the wedding invitations, and second, he must improve his "rather pedestrian status" by giving himself a middle name."[11] They had three children: Peter, Darrell, and Jonathan Salk. In 1968, they divorced, and in 1970, Salk married Françoise Gilot, the former mistress of Pablo Picasso. Jonas Salk died from heart failure at the age of 80 on June 23, 1995, in La Jolla[75] and was buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego.[76] Honors and recognition • 1955, one month after the vaccine announcement, he was honored by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, where he was given their "highest award for services" by Governor George M. Leader, Meritorious Service Medal, where the governor added, "... in recognition of his 'historical medical' discovery... Dr. Salk's achievement is meritorious service of the highest magnitude and dimension for the commonwealth, the country and mankind." The governor, who had three children, said that "as a parent he was 'humbly thankful to Dr. Salk,' and as Governor, 'proud to pay him tribute'."[77] • 1955, City University of New York city creates the Salk Scholarship fund which it awards to multiple outstanding pre-med students each year • 1956, awarded the Lasker Award; • 1957, the Municipal Hospital building, where Salk conducted his polio research at the University of Pittsburgh, is renamed Jonas Salk Hall and is home to the University's School of Pharmacy and Dentistry.[78] • 1958, awarded the James D. Bruce Memorial Award; • 1958, elected to the Polio Hall of Fame, which was dedicated in Warm Springs, Georgia; • 1975, awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award and the Congressional Gold Medal; • 1976, Jonas Salk received the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award; • 1976, named the Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association; • 1977, awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Jimmy Carter, with the following statement accompanying the medal: "Because of Doctor Jonas E. Salk, our country is free from the cruel epidemics of poliomyelitis that once struck almost yearly. Because of his tireless work, untold hundreds of thousands who might have been crippled are sound in body today. These are Doctor Salk's true honors, and there is no way to add to them. This Medal of Freedom can only express our gratitude, and our deepest thanks." • 1996, The March of Dimes Foundation created an annual $250,000 cash "Prize" to outstanding biologists as a tribute to Salk[79] • 2006, the United States Postal Service issued a 63 cent Distinguished Americans series postage stamp in his honor. • 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Salk into the California Hall of Fame[80] • 2009, BBYO boys chapter chartered in his honor in Scottsdale, Arizona, Named "Jonas Salk AZA #2357" • Schools in Mesa, Arizona; Spokane, Washington; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Bolingbrook, Illinois; Levittown, New York; Old Bridge, New Jersey; Merrillville, Indiana, and Sacramento, California, are named after him. • 2012, October 24, in honor of his birthday, has been named "World Polio Day", and was originated by Rotary International over a decade earlier.[81] Documentary films • In early 2009, the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) aired its new documentary film, American Experience: The Polio Crusade.[3] The documentary, available on DVD, can also be viewed online: PBS video, 1 hr. • On April 12, 2010, to help celebrate the 55th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, a new 66-minute documentary, The Shot Felt 'Round the World', had its world premiere. Directed by Tjardus Greidanus[82] and produced by Laura Davis,[83] the documentary was conceived by Hollywood screenwriter and producer Carl Kurlander to bring "a fresh perspective on the era."[84] • In 2014, actor and director Robert Redford, who was once struck with a mild case of polio when he was a child, directed a documentary about the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California.[85] Salk's book publications • Man Unfolding (1972) • Survival of the Wisest (1973) • World Population and Human Values: A New Reality (1981) • Anatomy of Reality: Merging of Intuition and Reason (1983) References: 1. b Zamula E (1991). "A New Challenge for Former Polio Patients." FDA Consumer 25 (5): 21–5. FDA.gov, Cited in Poliomyelitis [Retrieved 2009-11-14]. 2. b c d e f g h i j k l O'Neill, William L. (1989). American High: The Years of Confidence, 1945–1960. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-02-923679-7. 3. b c "American Experience: The Polio Crusade" Los Angeles Times, Television Review, Feb. 2, 2009 4. b c Rose DR (2004). "Fact Sheet—Polio Vaccine Field Trial of 1954." March of Dimes Archives. 2004 02 11. 5. Johnson, George (November 25, 1990). "Once Again, A Man With A Mission". The New York Times. Retrieved August 5, 2011. 6. "How Much Money Did Jonas Salk Potentially Forfeit By Not Patenting The Polio Vaccine?". Forbes. August 8, 2012. Retrieved September 30, 2014. 7. "UC San Diego Library Receives Personal Papers of Jonas Salk", Newswise, March 20, 2014 8. Dr. Lee Salk, Child Psychologist And Popular Author, Dies at 65 - New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15. 9. Lee Salk; Child Psychologist, Author - Seattle Times obituary. Retrieved 2011-08-15. 10. b c d e f g h i j k Bookchin, Debbie, and Schumacher, Jim. The Virus and the Vaccine, Macmillan (2004) ISBN 0-312-34272-1 11. b c d e f g h i Oshinsky, David M. Polio: An American Story, Oxford Univ. Press (2006) 12. Jonas Salk interview interview with Academy of Achievement 13. "Biography and Video Interview of Jonas Salk at Academy of Achievement". Achievement.org. Retrieved 2014-07-14. 14. Sweet, B.H. & M.R. Hilleman. "The Vacuolating Virus, S.V.40." 105 Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 420 (420–427), 1960 15. Eddy, B.; G. Borman, W. Berkeley & R. Young (1961). "Tumors induced in hamsters by injection of rhesus monkey kidney cell extracts". Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 107: 191–197. doi:10.3181/00379727-107-26576. PMID 13725644. 16. Eddy, B.E. "Tumors Produced in Hamsters by SV40." 21 Fed'n Proc 930 (930–935), 1962 17. Eddy, B.E. et al. "Identification of the Oncogenic Substance in Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Cultures as Simian Virus 40." Virology 17 (65–75), 1962 18. Meiklejohn, Gordon N., M.D. "Commission on Influenza." in Histories' of the Commissions Ed. Theodore E. Woodward, M.D., The Armed Forced Epidemiological Board, 1994 19. AP IMPACT: Past medical testing on humans revealed, Associated Press, published in on-line Yahoo News page, February 27, 2011, retrieved February 27, 2011[dead link] 20. b Wisdom magazine, August, 1956 pp. 6-15 21. b c Maurer, Frances A. & Smith, Claudia M. (2005). Community/Public Health Nursing Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 185. 22. "Mia Farrow on UNICEF's effort to eradicate polio". Cnn.com. 2000-01-24. Retrieved 2014-07-14. 23. "Famous People who Had and Have Polio" Disabled World.com 24. "Obituary for James H. Scheuer". The New York Times. August 31, 2005. 25. b c Olson, James S. (2000). Historical Dictionary of the 1950s. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-30619-2. 26. A Century of Change, Little, Brown and Co

Дата: 2016-10-28 16:46:10

Vitthalrao B. Khyade

“Dr. APIS” SCIENCE SPECTRUM Objective: To Establish the Repository of Contributions of Eminent Scholars and Information on Science and Culture For The Society. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Andre’ Lwoff: Scientist of the Day ( 8 May ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Birth: 8 May,1902) (Death: 30 September, 1994) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- André Michel Lwoff (8 May 1902 – 30 September 1994)[1][2][3]was a French microbiologist. Lwoff was born in Ainay-le-Château, Allier, in Auvergne, France, the son of Marie (Siminovitch), an artist, and Solomon Lwoff, a psychiatrist.[4] He joined the Institute Pasteur in Paris when he was 19 years old. In 1932, he finished his PhD and, with the help of a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, moved to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research of Heidelberg to Otto Meyerhof, where he did research on the development of flagellates. Another Rockefeller grant allowed him go to the University of Cambridge in 1937. In 1938, he was appointed departmental head at the Institut Pasteur, where he did groundbreaking research on bacteriophages, microbiota and on the poliovirus. He was awarded numerous prizes from the French Académie des Sciences, the Grand Prix Charles-Leopold Mayer, the Leeuwenhoek Medal of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1960 and the Keilin Medal of the British Biochemical Society in 1964. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1965 for the discovery of the mechanism that some viruses (which he named proviruses) use to infect bacteria.[4] Throughout his career he partnered with his wife Marguerite Lwoff although he gained considerably more recognition. Lwoff was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (For MemRS) in 1958.[1] References: 1. Jacob, F.; Girard, M. (1998). "Andre Michel Lwoff. 8 May 1902–30 September 1994". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 44: 255. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1998.0017. PMID 11623983. edit 2. Shafrir, E. (1996). "Jacques L. Monod, Francois J. Jacob and Andre M. Lwoff--introducers of new dimensions in cellular genetics and molecular biology". Israel journal of medical sciences 32 (2): 162. PMID 8631654. edit 3. "André Lwoff - Biography". Nobelprize.org. 1965. Retrieved 2013-05-24. 4. b Sullivan, Walter (1994-10-04). "Andre Lwoff, 92, Biologist, Dies; Shared Nobel for Study of Cells". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2013-05-24. 5. Michel Morange (2005). "What history tells us III. André Lwoff: From protozoology to molecular definition of viruses". p. 593. Retrieved 23 July 2013. "His culture was not limited to biology: André Lwoff was a humanist (Lwoff 1981)." File: [email protected] -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Each and Every Change Brings Opportunity for Fortified Development ………..Vitthalrao B. Khyade --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Acknowledgement: Vaishnavi Xerox helped for Collection of images in the Science Spectrum of 8 May, 2016. All the mistakes in the collection of information from website, it’s compilation and communication belongs exclusively to : Vitthalrao B. Khyade. Please do excuse for the mistakes. ----------------------------------------------------- [email protected] -------------------------------------------------------------“Dr. APIS”, Shrikrupa Residence, Teachers Society, Malegaon Colony (Baramati) Dist. Pune – 413115. [email protected]

Дата: 2016-05-08 15:03:58

Vitthalrao B. Khyade

“Dr. APIS” SCIENCE SPECTRUM Objective: To Establish the Repository of Contributions of Eminent Scholars and Information on Science and Culture For The Society. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28 March: Biochemical Reaction of the Day ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Why do the Onions Make Us to Cry ? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28 March is the death anniversary of Chester John Cavallito. He was American organic chemist. He was particularly known for his work on the chemistry of garlic. Beginning in 1944, with his colleagues, he reported on the isolation from crushed garlic, synthesis (from diallyl disulfide) and antibiotic activity of a compound he named allicin. Cavallito established that allicin was a member of a class of organosulfur compounds known as thiosulfinates. He also synthesized and reported on the chemical and biological properties of a series of thiosulfinates related to allicin. Cutting onions is arguably the worst part of cooking, the burning irritation you get in your eye becomes unbearable so much as to take a break mid way through chopping. So why is this? This is all to do with mixing molecules in the onion cells that aren't supposed to be together, an enzyme named Allilinase and a molecule called Allilin. Think of this like the type of adhesive that has two parts that you need combine together to make the glue active. When we cut onion we start the chain of reactions allowing the Allilin to come in contact with Allilinase to turn the Allilin into Sulfenic Acid and this Sulfenic Acid turns into syn-Propanethial-S-oxide though the enzyme Lachrymatory Factor Synthase. This syn-Propanethial-S-oxide is what everyone hates because this is the irritant that when combined with the moisture in your eyes gives you that pain and your body tells your tear ducts to try and wash it out. References: 1.Something about Science 2. http://www.reactionoftheday.com/ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Acknowledgement: Girija Girish Tambe of Vaishnavi Xerox helped for Collection of images in the Science Spectrum of 28 March, 2016. All the mistakes in the collection of information from website, it’s compilation and communication belongs exclusively to : Vitthalrao B. Khyade. Please do excuse for the mistakes. ----------------------------------------------------- [email protected] ------------------------------------------- “Dr. APIS”, Shrikrupa Residence, Teachers Society, Malegaon Colony (Baramati) Dist. Pune – 413115. [email protected] All the mistakes in the collection of information from website, it’s compilation and communication ( through email ) belongs exclusively to : Vitthalrao B. Khyade ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- File: Dr.APIS.28.March@Allicin

Дата: 2016-03-27 17:14:22

Vitthalrao B. Khyade

Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar, Malegaon(Baramati) Dist. Pune – 413115. ------------------------------------------------- “Dr. APIS” Science Leaflet ------------------------------------------------- 30 June: Birth Day of C N R Rao ----------------------------------------------------------HAPPY----BIRTHDAY------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Chintamani Nagesa Ramachandra Rao, also known as C.N.R. Rao(kannada : (born 30 June 1934), is an Indian chemist who has worked mainly in solid-state and structural chemistry. He currently serves as the Head of the Scientific Advisory Council to the Prime Minister of India. On 16th November 2013, The Government of India decided to confer upon him Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award in India. CNR Rao was born in Bangalore of father Hanumantha Nagesa Rao, and mother Nagamma Nagesa Rao. He obtained his bachelors degree from Mysore University in 1951, obtaining a masters from BHU two years later, and obtained his Ph.D. in 1958 from Purdue University. In 1961 he received DSc from Mysore University. He joined the faculty of Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur in 1963.[3] He has received Honorary Doctorates from many Universities such as Bordeaux, Caen, Colorado, Khartoum, Liverpool, Northwestern, Novosibirsk, Oxford, Purdue, Stellenbosch, Universite Joseph Fourier, Wales, Wroclaw, Notre Dame, Uppsala, Aligarh Muslim, Anna, AP, Banaras, Bengal Engineering, Bangalore, Burdwan, Bundelkhand, Delhi, Hyderabad, IGNOU, IIT-Bombay, Kharagpur,Delhi and Patna, JNTU, Kalyani, Karnataka, Kolkata, Kuvempu, Lucknow, Mangalore, Manipur, Mysore, Osmania, Punjab, Roorkee, Sikkim Manipal, SRM, Tumkur, Sri Venkateswara, Vidyasagar, and Visveswaraya Technological University.[4][5] Profession: Rao is currently the National Research Professor and Linus Pauling Research Professor and Honorary President of the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research in Bangalore, India. He is the founding President of the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research. He was appointed Chair of the Scientific Advisory Council to the Indian Prime Minister in January 2005, a position which he had occupied earlier during 1985–89. He is also the director of the International Centre for Materials Science (ICMS). Earlier, he served as a faculty member in the Department of Chemistry at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur from 1963 to 1976 and as the Director of the Indian Institute of Science from 1984 to 1994. He has also been a visiting professor at Purdue University, the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge and University of California, Santa Barbara. He was the Jawaharlal Nehru Professor at the University of Cambridge and Professorial Fellow at the King's College, Cambridge during 1983-1984.[4] Rao is one of the world's foremost solid state and materials chemists. He has contributed to the development of the field over five decades.[5] His work on transition metal oxides has led to basic understanding of novel phenomena and the relationship between materials properties and the structural chemistry of these materials. Rao was one of the earliest to synthesize two-dimensional oxide materials such as La2CuO4. His work has led to a systematic study of compositionally controlled metal-insulator transitions. Such studies have had a profound impact in application fields such as colossal magneto resistance and high temperature superconductivity. Oxide semiconductors have unusual promise. He has made immense contributions to nanomaterials over the last two decades, besides his work on hybrid materials. He is the author of around 1500 research papers. He has authored and edited 45 books.[5][6]Rao serves on the board of the Science Initiative Group. Awards: He will be awarded the Bharat Ratna, as declared by the Government of India on 16 November, 2013. He was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 2000, and he became the first recipient of the India Science Award, instituted by the Government of India, for his contributions to solid state chemistry and materials science, awarded in 2004.[7] He had also been given the honours Padma Shri and Padma Vibhushan by the Indian Government and Karnataka Ratna by the Karnataka state government. He has won several other international prizes and awards. He was awarded Dan David Prize in 2005,[8] by the Dan David Foundation, Tel Aviv University, which he shared with George Whitesides and Robert Langer.[9] In 2005, he was conferred the title Chevalier de la Légiond'honneur (Knight of the Legion of Honour) by France, awarded by the French Government. He is a foreign fellow of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences.[10] He was also awarded an honorary Doctor of Science by the University of Calcutta in 2004.[11] Dr Rao has also been conferred with China's top science award for his important contributions in boosting Sino-India scientific cooperation.[12] The award was given by Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) in January 2013, which is China's top academic and research institution for natural sciences. He received 'Distinguished academician award' from IIT Patna in 2013.[13]. He is a member of many of the world's scientific associations, including the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Royal Society (London; FRS, 1982), French Academy, Japanese Academy, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and the Pontifical Academy. References: 1. "Sachin first sportsperson to win country’s highest civilian honour Bharat Ratna". New Delhi: Hindustan Times. 16 November 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2013. 2. "Bharat Ratna for Prof CNR Rao and Sachin Tendulkar". Prime Minister's Office (India). 16 November 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2013. 3. NNDB (2012). "C. N. R. Rao". nndb.com. Soylent Communications. Retrieved 2013-06-03. 4. INSA. "Indian Fellow". Indian National Science Academy. Retrieved 2013-06-03. 5. Johnson R (20 July 2012). "Author Profile: C. N. R. Rao". Journal of Materials Chemistry Blog. Retrieved 2013-06-03. 6. ABC (24 November 2011). "CNR Rao is the winner of the 2011 Ernesto Illy Trieste Science Prize". abc.org.br. The Brazilian Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2013-06-03. 7. Ramasami T (2005). "India Science Award and Dan David Prize for C. N. R. Rao". Current Science88 (5): 687. 8. The Hindu : Karnataka News : Dan David prize for C.N.R. Rao. Hinduonnet.com (2005-03-04). Retrieved on 2012-03-13. 9. "Dan David Prize". Retrieved 2008-05-06. 10. List of Fellows of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences 11. HonorisCausa. Caluniv.ac.in. Retrieved on 2012-03-13. 12. China's top science award for Dr.C.N. R. Rao Retrieved on 2013-01-24 13. www.iitp.ac.in 14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._N._R._Rao 15. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Sachin-eminent-scientist-CNR-Rao-get-Bharat-Ratna/articleshow/25892638.cms File: [email protected] Compiled For : Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar; Tal. Baramati; Dist. Pune – 413115 (India). --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- With the Best Compliments From: Shardanagar (The Agro – academic Heritage of Grandsire Padmashri Dr. D. G. Alias Appasaheb Pawar). -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Дата: 2014-06-30 09:07:50

Vitthalrao B. Khyade

Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar, Malegaon(Baramati) Dist. Pune – 413115. “Dr. APIS” SCIENCE LEAFLET --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Objective: To Establish the Repository of Scientific Information For The Society. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29 June: Indian National Statistics Day ( Birth Anniversary of Mahalanobis ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In recognition of the notable contributions made by Late Prof. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in the fields of economic planning and statistical development, the Government of India has designated 29th June every year, coinciding with his birth anniversary, as the “Statistics Day” in the category of Special Day to be celebrated at the national level. The theme for this year’s Statistics Day is “Labour and Employment Statistics”. The objective of the Day is to create public awareness, specially the younger generation for drawing inspirations from Late Prof. Mahalanobis about the role of statistics in socio-economic planning and policy formulation. The Statistics Day is celebrated all over India by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, State Governments, Offices of National Sample Survey Offices spread throughout the country, Indian Statistical Institute, Universities/Departments, etc. by organizing Seminars, Conferences, Debates, Quiz Programmes, Lecture Series, Essay Competitions, etc. At national level, main function is held at Vigyan Bhawan. Statistics Day provides a great opportunity to the statisticians , experts, policy makers, academicians and students from different places to interact with each other to devise appropriate measures and meet the emerging data requirement. There is a need to further strengthen the role of Statisticians in the administration of the country (http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=96892). The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation came into existence as an Independent Ministry on 15.10.1999 after the merger of the Department of Statistics and the Department of Programme Implementation. The Ministry has two wings, one relating to Statistics and the other Programme Implementation. The Statistics Wing called the National Statistical Office(NSO) consists of the Central Statistical Office (CSO), the Computer Centre and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). The Programme Implementation Wing has three Divisions, namely, (i) Twenty Point Programme (ii) Infrastructure Monitoring and Project Monitoring and (iii) Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme. Besides these two wings, there is National Statistical Commission created through a Resolution of Government of India (MOSPI) and one autonomous Institute, viz., Indian Statistical Institute declared as an institute of National importance by an Act of Parliament. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis FRS (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972) was an Indian scientist and applied statistician. He is best remembered for the Mahalanobis distance, a statistical measure. He made pioneering studies in anthropometry in India. He founded the Indian Statistical Institute, and contributed to the design of large-scale sample surveys. Mahalanobis belonged to a family of Bengali landed gentry who lived in Bikrampur (now in Bangladesh). His grandfather Gurucharan (1833–1916) moved to Calcutta in 1854 and built up a business, starting a chemist shop in 1860. Gurucharan was influenced byDebendranath Tagore (1817–1905), father of the Nobel-prize-winning poet, Rabindranath Tagore. Gurucharan was actively involved in social movements such as the Brahmo Samaj, acting as its Treasurer and President. His house on 210 Cornwallis Street was the center of the Brahmo Samaj. Gurucharan married a widow against social traditions. His elder son Subodhchandra (1867–1954) was the father of P. C. Mahalanobis. He was a distinguished educationist who studied physiology at Edinburgh University and later became a Professor at the Presidency College became head of the department of Physiology. Subodhchandra also became a member of the Senate of the Calcutta University. Born in the house at 210 Cornwallis Street, P. C. Mahalanobis, grew up in a socially active family surrounded by intellectuals and reformers.[1] Mahalanobis received his early schooling at the Brahmo Boys School in Calcutta graduating in 1908. He then joined the Presidency College, Calcutta and received a B.Sc. degree with honours in physics in 1912. He left for England in 1913 to join the University of London. He however missed a train and stayed with a friend at King's College, Cambridge. He was impressed by the Chapel there and his host's friend M. A. Candeth suggested that he could try joining there, which he did. He did well in his studies, but also took an interest in cross-country walking and punting on the river. He interacted with the mathematical genius Srinivasa Ramanujan during the latter's time at Cambridge. After his Tripos in physics, Mahalanobis worked with C. T. R. Wilson at the Cavendish Laboratory. He took a short break and went to India and here he was introduced to the Principal of Presidency College and was invited to take classes in physics.[1] He went back to England and was introduced to the journal Biometrika. This interested him so much that he bought a complete set and took them to India. He discovered the utility of statistics to problems in meteorology, anthropology and began working on it on his journey back to India.[1]In Calcutta, Mahalanobis met Nirmalkumari, daughter of Herambhachandra Maitra, a leading educationist and member of the Brahmo Samaj. They married on 27 February 1923 although her father did not completely approve of it. The contention was partly due to Mahalanobis's opposition of various clauses in the membership of the student wing of the Brahmo Samaj, including restraining members from drinking and smoking. Sir Nilratan Sircar, P. C. Mahalanobis's uncle took part in the wedding ceremony in place of the father of the bride.[1] Indian Statistical Institute Many colleagues of Mahalanobis took an interest in statistics and the group grew in the Statistical Laboratory located in his room at the Presidency College, Calcutta. A meeting was called on the 17 December 1931 with Pramatha Nath Banerji (Minto Professor of Economics), Nikhil Ranjan Sen (Khaira Professor of Applied Mathematics) and Sir R. N. Mukherji. The meeting led to the establishment of the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), and formally registered on 28 April 1932 as a non-profit distributing learned society under the Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860.[1] The Institute was initially in the Physics Department of the Presidency College and the expenditure in the first year was Rs. 238. It gradually grew with the pioneering work of a group of his colleagues including S. S. Bose, J. M. Sengupta, R. C. Bose, S. N. Roy,K. R. Nair, R. R. Bahadur, Gopinath Kallianpur, D. B. Lahiri and C. R. Rao. The institute also gained major assistance through Pitamber Pant, who was a secretary to the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Pant was trained in statistics at the Institute and took a keen interest in the institute.[1] In 1933, the journal Sankhya was founded along the lines of Karl Pearson's Biometrika.[1] The institute started a training section in 1938. Many of the early workers left the ISI for careers in the United States and with the government of India. Mahalanobis invitedJ. B. S. Haldane to join him at the ISI and Haldane joined as a Research Professor from August 1957 and stayed on until February 1961. He resigned from the ISI due to frustrations with the administration and disagreements with Mahalanobis's policies. He was also very concerned with the frequent travels and absence of the director and wrote The journeyings of our Director define a novel random vector. Haldane however helped the ISI grow in biometrics.[3] In 1959, the institute was declared as an institute of national importance and a deemed university.[1] Contributions to statistics : A chance meeting with Nelson Annandale, then the director of the Zoological Survey of India, at the 1920 Nagpur session of the Indian Science Congress led to a problem in anthropology. Annandale asked him to analyse anthropometric measurements of Anglo-Indians in Calcutta and this led to his first scientific paper in 1922. During the course of these studies he found a way of comparing and grouping populations using a multivariate distance measure. This measure, D2, which is now named after him as Mahalanobis distance, is independent of measurement scale.[1] Inspired by Biometrika and mentored by Acharya Brajendra Nath Seal he started his statistical work. Initially he worked on analyzing university exam results, anthropometric measurements on Anglo-Indians of Calcutta and some meteorological problems. He also worked as a meteorologist for some time. In 1924, when he was working on the probable error of results of agricultural experiments, he met Ronald Fisher, with whom he established a lifelong friendship. He also worked on schemes to prevent floods. Sample surveys: His most important contributions are related to large-scale sample surveys. He introduced the concept of pilot surveys and advocated the usefulness of sampling methods. Early surveys began between 1937 to 1944 and included topics such as consumer expenditure, tea-drinking habits, public opinion, crop acreage and plant disease. Harold Hotelling wrote: "No technique of random sample has, so far as I can find, been developed in the United States or elsewhere, which can compare in accuracy with that described by Professor Mahalanobis" and Sir R. A. Fisher commented that "The ISI has taken the lead in the original development of the technique of sample surveys, the most potent fact finding process available to the administration".[1] He introduced a method for estimating crop yields which involved statisticians sampling in the fields by cutting crops in a circle of diameter 4 feet. Others such as P. V. Sukhatmeand V. G. Panse who began to work on crop surveys with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute suggested that a survey system should make use of the existing administrative framework. The differences in opinion led to acrimony and there was little interaction between Mahalanobis and agricultural research in later years.[4][5][6] Linguistics: Along with Nikhilesh Bhattacharya, Jibanmoy Ray, Arunendranath Ray and Sukesh Debnath, Mahalanobis contributed to the study of quantitative linguistics and language planning in connection with economic planning.[7] He contributed in Speech Pathology too, in collaboration with Djordge Kostic, Rhea Das and Alakananda Mitter. He contributed in the field of language correction.[8] Later life: In later life, Mahalanobis was a member of the planning commission[9] contributed prominently to newly independent India's five-year plans starting from the second. In the second five-year plan he emphasised industrialization on the basis of a two-sector model.[1] His variant of Wassily Leontief's Input-output model, the Mahalanobis model, was employed in the Second Five Year Plan, which worked towards the rapid industrialization of India and with other colleagues at his institute, he played a key role in the development of a statistical infrastructure. He encouraged a project to assess deindustrialization in India and correct some previous census methodology errors and entrusted this project to Daniel Thorner.[10] Mahalanobis also had an abiding interest in cultural pursuits and served as secretary to Rabindranath Tagore, particularly during the latter's foreign travels, and also worked at hisVisva-Bharati University, for some time. He received one of the highest civilian awards, the Padma Vibhushan from the Government of India for his contribution to science and services to the country. Mahalanobis died on 28 June 1972, a day before his seventy-ninth birthday. Even at this age, he was still active doing research work and discharging his duties as the Secretary and Director of the Indian Statistical Institute and as the Honorary Statistical Advisor to the Cabinet of the Government of India. Honours: • Weldon Medal from Oxford University (1944) • Fellow of the Royal Society, London (1945) • President of Indian Science Congress (1950) • Fellow of the Econometric Society, U.S.A. (1951) • Fellow of the Pakistan Statistical Association (1952) • Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society, U.K. (1954) • Sir Deviprasad Sarvadhikari Gold Medal (1957) • Foreign member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1958) • Honorary Fellow of King's College, Cambridge (1959) • Fellow of the American Statistical Association (1961) • Durgaprasad Khaitan Gold Medal (1961) • Padma Vibhushan (1968) • Srinivasa Ramanujam Gold Medal (1968) The government of India decided in 2006 to celebrate his birthday, 29 June, as National Statistical Day.[11][12] References: 1. a b c d e f g h i j k l Rao, C. R. (1973) Prasantha Chandra Mahalanobis. 1893–1972. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 19:454–492 2. Rudra, A. (1996), Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis: A Biography. Oxford University Press. 3. Dronamraju, Krishna R. (1987). "On Some Aspects of the Life and Work of John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, F. R. S., in India". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 41(2): 211–237. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1987.0006. PMID 11622022. 4. Rao, J. N. K. (2006) Interplay Between Sample Survey Theory and Practice: An Appraisal. Survey Methodology Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 117–138. Statistics Canada, Catalogue No. 12-001PDF 5. Adhikari, B. P. (1990). Social construction of the statistical estimation of crop yield. Paper presented at the XII World Congress of Sociology of the Internutionul Sociologicul Associution, Madrid, Spain. 6. Ghosh, J. K.; P. Maiti; T. J. Rao; B. K. Sinha (1999). "Evolution of Statistics in India". Revue Internationale de Statistique 67 (1): 13–34. doi:10.2307/1403563. JSTOR 1403563. 7. "Mahalanobis as a Language Planner". 8. "Colti Bhasar Banan". Prabasi. 1925. 9. The Hindu dated 15th May, 2003 10. Das, Gurucharan. 2000 India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age Anchor Books. pp. 432 ISBN 0-375-41164-X 11. The Statesman 25 December 2006 12. Mohan, Rakesh 2007 Statistical system of India – some reflections. Reserve Bank of India, Department of Statistical Analysis and Computer Services, Mumbai, 29 June 2007. PDF 13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Statistics_and_Programme_Implementation 14. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=96892 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- File: [email protected] Compiled For : Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar; Tal. Baramati; Dist. Pune – 413115 (India). With the Best Compliments From: Shardanagar (The Agro – academic Heritage of Grandsire Padmashri Dr. D. G. Alias Appasaheb Pawar). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Дата: 2014-06-29 12:54:24

Vitthalrao B. khyade

Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar, Malegaon (Baramati) Dist. Pune – 413115. “Dr. APIS” SCIENCE LEAFLET ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Objective: To Establish the Repository of Scientific Information For The Society. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31 May: World Anti Tobacco Day ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- World No Tobacco Day (WNTD) is observed around the world every year on May 31. It is meant to encourage a 24-hour period of abstinence from all forms of tobacco consumption across the globe. The day is further intended to draw global attention to the widespread prevalence of tobacco use and to negative health effects, which currently lead to 5.4 million deaths worldwide annually. The member states of the World Health Organization (WHO) created World No Tobacco Day in 1987. In the past twenty years, the day has been met with both enthusiasm and resistance across the globe from governments, public health organizations, smokers, growers, and the tobacco industry. WHO and World No Tobacco Day World No Tobacco Day is one of many other world health awareness days throughout the year organized by the WHO, including World Mental Health Day, World AIDS Day, and World Blood Donor Day, among others. Timeline • In 1987, the World Health organization of the WHO passed Resolution WHA40.38, calling for April 7, 1988 to be "a world no-smoking day". April 7, 1988 was the 40th anniversary of the WHO. The objective of the day was to urge tobacco users worldwide to abstain from using tobacco products for 24 hours, an action they hoped would provide assistance for those trying to quit.[1] • In 1988, Resolution WHA42.19 was passed by the World Health Assembly, calling for the celebration of World No Tobacco Day, every year on May 31. Since then, the WHO has supported World No Tobacco Day every year, linking each year to a different tobacco-related theme. • In 1998, the WHO established the Tobacco Free Initiative (TFI), an attempt to focus international resources and attention on the global health issue of tobacco. The initiative provides assistance for creating global public health policy, encourages mobilization across societies, and supports the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC).[2] The WHO FCTC is a global public health treaty adopted in 2003 by countries across the globe as an agreement to implement policies that work towards tobacco cessation. • In 2008, on the eve of the World No Tobacco Day the WHO called for a worldwide ban on all tobacco advertising, promotion, and sponsorship. The theme of that year’s day was Tobacco-free youth; therefore, this initiative was especially meant to target advertising efforts aimed at youth. According to the WHO, the tobacco industry must replace older quitting or dying smokers with younger consumers. Because of this, marketing strategies are commonly observed in places that will attract youth such as movies, the Internet, billboards, and magazines. Studies have shown that the more youth are exposed to tobacco advertising, the more likely they are to smoke.[3] Themes Each year, the WHO selects a theme for the day in order to create a more unified global message for WNTD. This theme then becomes the central component of the WHO’s tobacco-related agenda for the following year.[4] The WHO oversees the creation and distribution of publicity materials related to the theme, including brochures, fliers, posters, websites, and press releases.[5] In 2008 for the theme Tobacco-free youth, Youtube videos were created as a part of the WNTD awareness campaign, and podcasts were first used in 2009. In many of its WNTD themes and related publicity-materials, the WHO emphasizes the idea of “truth.” Theme titles such as “Tobacco kills, don’t be duped” (2000) and “Tobacco: deadly in any form or disguise” (2006) indicate a WHO belief that individuals may be misled or confused about the true nature of tobacco; the rationale for the 2000 and 2008 WNTD themes identify the marketing strategies and “illusions” created by the tobacco industry as a primary source of this confusion.[6] The WHO’s WNTD materials present an alternate understanding of the “facts” as seen from a global public health perspective. WNTD publicity materials provide an “official” interpretation of the most up-to-date tobacco-related research and statistics and provide a common ground from which to formulate anti-tobacco arguments around the world. List • 2013 Ban tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship • 2012 Tobacco industry interference • 2011 The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control • 2010 Gender and tobacco with an emphasis on marketing to women • 2009 Tobacco health warnings • 2008 Tobacco-free youth • 2007 Smoke free inside • 2006 Tobacco: deadly in any form or disguise • 2005 Health professionals against tobacco • 2004 Tobacco and poverty, a vicious circle • 2003 Tobacco free film, tobacco free fashion • 2002 Tobacco free sports • 2001 Second-hand smoke kills • 2000 Tobacco kills, don't be duped • 1999 Leave the pack behind • 1998 Growing up without tobacco • 1997 United for a tobacco free world • 1996 Sport and art without tobacco: play it tobacco free • 1995 Tobacco costs more than you think • 1994 Media and tobacco: get the message across • 1993 Health services: our windows to a tobacco free world • 1992 Tobacco free workplaces: safer and healthier • 1991 Public places and transport: better be tobacco free • 1990 Childhood and youth without tobacco: growing up without tobacco • 1989 Women and tobacco: the female smoker: at added risk • 1988 Tobacco or Health: choose health Event coordination The WHO serves as a central hub for coordinating WNTD events around the world. The WHO website provides a place for groups to register their planned WNTD events. The WHO publishes this information, by country, on its website. The registry helps foster communication and awareness between groups (locally, nationally, and globally) interested in the public health effects of tobacco, and it also serves as a way for interested individuals to quickly see if there is an event in their area. Awards Since 1988 the WHO has presented one or more Awards to organizations or individuals who have made exceptional contributions to reducing tobacco consumption. World No Tobacco Day Awards are given to individuals from six different world regions (Africa, Americas, Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, South-East Asia, and Western Pacific), and Director-General Special Awards and Recognition Certificates are given to individuals from any region.[7] Global observance Groups around the world—from local clubs to city councils to national governments—are encouraged by the WHO to organize events each year to help communities celebrate World No Tobacco Day in their own way at the local level. Past events have included letter writing campaigns to government officials and local newspapers, marches, public debates, local and national publicity campaigns, anti-tobacco activist meetings, educational programming, and public art.[8] In addition, many governments use WNTD as the start date for implementing new smoking bans and tobacco control efforts. For example, on May 31, 2008, a section of the Smoke Free Ontario Act came into effect banning tobacco "power walls" and displays at stores, and all hospitals and government offices in Australia will become smoke free on May 31, 2010.[9][10] The day has also been used as a springboard for discussing the current and future state of a country as it relates to tobacco. For example, in India, (which, with 120 million smokers, has one of the highest rates of tobacco consumption in the world),[11] a special section of the Indian journal Current Science, together with the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, was published in time for WNTD, 2009. This section examined tobacco use and control in India in an attempt to spread awareness and build support for stricter tobacco control.[12] Resistance For some, WNTD is nothing more than a “futile attempt to curb smoking” which has little to no visible effect in places like the former USSR, India, and China.[13] For others, WNTD is seen as a challenge to individual freedom of choice or even a culturally acceptable form of discrimination. From ignoring WNTD, to participating in protests or acts of defiance, to bookending the day with extra rounds of pro-tobacco advertisements and events, smokers, tobacco growers, and the tobacco industry have found ways to make their opinions of the day heard. Smoker response There has been no sustained or widespread effort to organize counter-WNTD events on the part of smokers. There is, however, an active community of smokers’ rights advocates who see the WNTD as unfairly singling them out and challenging their rights. The WHO maintains a listing of these organizations on its website. Some small groups have created local pro-smoking events. For example, the Oregon Commentator, an independent conservative journal of opinion published at the University of Oregon, hosted a “Great American Smoke-in” on campus as a counter to the locally more widespread Great American Smokeout: “In response to the ever-increasing vilification of smokers on campus, the Oregon Commentator presents the Great American Smoke-in as an opportunity for students to join together and enjoy the pleasures of fine tobacco products.”[14] Similarly, “Americans for Freedom of Choice” a group in Honolulu, Hawaii organized “World Defiance Day” in response to WNTD and Hawaii’s statewide ban on smoking in restaurants.[15] Industry response Historically, in America the tobacco industry has funded state initiatives that provide resources to help smokers quit smoking as per the Master Settlement Agreement regulated by the U.S. government.[16] For example, Phillip Morris USA operates a “Quit Assist” website that acts as a guide for those who choose to quit smoking. World No Tobacco Days have not induced a positive vocal response from the tobacco industry. For example, a memo made publicly available through www.tobaccoarchives.com was sent out to executives of R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company in preparation for the third annual World No Tobacco Day, which had the theme of “Childhood and Youth Without Tobacco.” The memo includes a warning about the upcoming day, a document that explains the arguments they anticipate the WHO making, and an explanation of how the company should respond to these claims. For example, in response to the anticipated argument that their advertisements target children, the company’s response includes arguments that claim their advertisements are targeted towards adults by using adult models, and that advertisements lack the power to influence what people will actually purchase.[17] In Uganda, since the World No Tobacco Day is the one day that the media is obligated to publicize tobacco control issues, the British American Tobacco company uses the eve of the day to administer counter-publicity. In 2001, their strategy included events such as a visit with the President of the International Tobacco Growers Association.[18] Unlike the tobacco industry, some big pharmaceutical companies do publicly support WNTD. For example, Pfizer was a large sponsor for many WNTD events in the United Arab Emirates in 2008. At the time, Pfizer was preparing to release its drug Chantix (Varenicline) into the Middle Eastern market. The drug was “designed to activate the nicotinic receptor to reduce both the severity of the smoker's craving and the withdrawal symptoms from nicotine.”[19] Grower response Many tobacco growers feel that anti-tobacco efforts by organizations such as the WHO jeopardize their rights. For example, the International Tobacco Growers Association (ITGA) argues that poor farmers in Africa may suffer the consequences if WHO anti-tobacco movements succeed. They also argue that these efforts may gang up on manufacturers of tobacco and be an attack on the industry, therefore hurting the growers.[20] References 1. ^for Disease Control. 1990. MMWR Weekly (April 6, 1990). http://www.cdc.gov/Mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001591.htm 2. ^World Health Organization. 2010. Tobacco Free Initiative (TFI).http://web.ebscohost.com.libproxy.wustl.edu/ehost/detail?vid=1&hid=108&sid=9f40a449-8b2a-441a-95a2n738915e20dcf@sessionmgr104&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph&AN=33440955http://www.who.int/tobacco/about/en/index.html 3. ^Chan, Margaret. 2008. WHO calls for banning all tobacco advertising, promotion. Nation’s Health. 38 (6):21. 4. ^World Health Organization. 2010. World No Tobacco Day 2010. http://www.who.int/tobacco/wntd/2010/announcement/en/index.html 5. ^World Health Organization. 2010. World No Tobacco Day, 31 May 2009: Campaign Materials. http://www.who.int/tobacco/wntd/2009/en/index.html 6. ^World Health Organization. 2010. World No Tobacco Day 200. http://www.who.int/tobacco/communications/events/wntd/2000/en/index.html 7. ^World Health Organization. 2010. World No Tobacco Day 2009 Awards – the winners. http://www.who.int/tobacco/wntd/2009/awards/en/index.html 8. ^For examples, search “celebrations around the world” within each theme’s page of the World Health Organization’s website. Try World Health Organization. 2010. 31 May 2008, World No Tobacco Day activities. http://www.who.int/tobacco/wntd/2008/activities/en/index.html to get started. 9. ^CBC News. 2008. Cigarette display ban begins in Quebec, Ontario. http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/05/31/cigarette-display.html 10. ^Pengelley, Jill and Ben Harvy. 2009. . Smoking to be Banned on Public Hospital Grounds. Adelaide Now... September 29http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/smoking-to-be-banned-on-public-hospital-grounds/story-e6freo8c-1225779306000?from=public_rss 11. ^Campaign for Tobacco-free kids. 2010. India: Overview. http://tobaccofreecenter.org/resources_country/india 12. ^Current Science. 2009. Contents: Vol. 96 No. 10, 25 May 2006. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/may252009/contents.htm 13. ^RiaNovosti. 2009. Opinion & Analysis: World No Tobacco Day, Futile Attempt to Curb Smoking. http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20090529/155119204.html 14. ^2007. OC to host Great American Smoke-in. The Oregon Commentator. November 26. http://www.oregoncommentator.com/category/smoking-ban/page/2/ 15. ^Zimmerman, Malia. 2007. Defiance—one puff at a time. Hawaii Reporter. July 6. http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?f3bafc22-9167-4aaa-83d2-b5648c90a890 16. ^http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2598516/ 17. ^R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company Online Litigation Document Archive. 1990. Infotab. WHO World No-Tobacco Day, 31 May 1990: Growing up without tobacco, The Industry Response. http://rjrtdocs.com./rjrtdocs/image_downloader.wmt?MODE=PDF&SEARCH=0&ROW=1&DOC_RANGE=511992389+-2390&CAMEFROM=1. 18. ^The Environmental Action Network. 2002. Tobacco Industry Tactics in Uganda. http://tean.globalink.org/tobaccotactics.html 19. ^UAS Interact. 2007. Today’s News Stories: World No Tobacco Day is “Critically Important” for the Middle East.http://www.uaeinteract.com/docs/World_No_Tobacco_Day_is_Critically_Important_for_the_Middle_East/25385.htm. 20. ^Yach, Derek and Douglas Bettcher. 2000. Globalisation of tobacco industry influence and new global response. Tobacco Control. 9:206-219. http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/9/2/206.full File: [email protected] For : Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar; Tal. Baramati; Dist. Pune – 413115 (India). With the Best Compliments From: Shardanagar (The Agro – academic Heritage of Grandsire Padmashri Dr. D. G. Alias Appasaheb Pawar).

Дата: 2014-05-31 14:06:59

Vitthalrao B. Khyade

Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar, Malegaon(Baramati) Dist. Pune – 413115. “Dr. APIS” SCIENCE LEAFLET ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Objective: To Establish the Repository of Scientific Information For The Society. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 April : Birth Anniversary of Hans W. Kosterlitz ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Birth: 31 March,1903) (Death: 28 October, 1996) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Hans Walter Kosterlitz FRS[1](27 April 1903 – 26 October 1996) was a German-born British biologist, who graduated Doctor of Medicine (Dr. med) in Berlin. He emigrated to Scotland in 1934, after the takeover of the Nazi Party in Germany. He joined the staff of Aberdeen University in the same year where he later served as professor of pharmacology and chemistry from 1968 until 1973 when he became director of the university's drug addiction research unit.[2][3] Kosterlitz is best known for his work on endorphins.[4][5] He performed a famous experiment that he envisioned in a dream while sleeping. He stimulated a strip of guinea pig intestine electrically and was able to record the contractions with a polygraph. He then found that if you added opiates to the solution, the intestine would not contract. Opiates inhibit intestinal contraction. Those contractions were later found to resume in the presence of both opiates and an antagonist such as naloxone. Later, endogenous endorphins were discovered by applying tissue (pig brain cell homegenate) to the apparatus. This caused the contractions to cease. The degree to which an opiate agonist inhibits contractions in the guinea pig ileum is highly correlated to its potency. Kosterlitz was given the Scheele Award in 1977, and shared the Albert Lasker Award with John Hughes and Solomon Snyder in 1978 for his work in the discovery of the opiate receptors and their natural ligands. The University of Aberdeen officially opened its new Kosterlitz Centre on 16 September 2010 in memory of Professor Hans Kosterlitz, who joined the University in 1933. Hans Walter Kosterlitz is the brother of the film director Henry Koster. He was married, since 1937, to Hannah Gresshorner. Their son, J. Michael, is Professor for Physics at Brown University. References: 1. b North, R. A.; Hughes, J. (2013). "Hans Walter Kosterlitz. 27 April 1903 -- 26 October 1996". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2012.0037. edit 2. Lees, G. M. (1998). "A tribute to the late Hans W. Kosterlitz: Ploughing the lone furrow". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 76 (3): 244–251. doi:10.1139/cjpp-76-3-244. PMID 9673787. edit 3. Hughes, J. (1996). "Hans Kosterlitz (1903–96)". Nature 384 (6608): 418. doi:10.1038/384418a0. PMID 8945465. edit 4. Hughes, J.; Kosterlitz, H. W.; Smith, T. W. (1997). "The distribution of methionine-enkephalin and leucine-enkephalin in the brain and peripheral tissues. 1977". British journal of pharmacology 120 (4 Suppl): 428–436; discussion 436–7. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1997.tb06829.x. PMC 3224324. PMID 9142421. edit 5. Henderson, G.; Hughes, J.; Kosterlitz, H. W. (1997). "A new example of a morphine-sensitive neuro-effector junction: Adrenergic transmission in the mouse vas deferens. 1972". British journal of pharmacology 120 (4 Suppl): 396–398; discussion 398–5. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1997.tb06821.x. PMC 3224316. PMID 9142417. edit File: [email protected] Compiled For : Science Association, Shardabai Pawar Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Shardanagar; Tal. Baramati; Dist. Pune – 413115 (India). With the Best Compliments From: Shardanagar (The Agro – academic Heritage of Grandsire Padmashri Dr. D. G. Alias Appasaheb Pawar).

Дата: 2014-04-25 21:23:50